Research Highlights

Chameleon Atoms: JILA Researchers Demonstrate Versatile Atomic Qubits That Can Pass Around Information

Daniel Packman — Thu, 11 Jun 2026 19:06:04 +0000

Chameleon Atoms: JILA Researchers Demonstrate Versatile Atomic Qubits That Can Pass Around Information Daniel Packman Thu, 06/11/2026 - 13:06

Researchers are developing new technologies that harness quantum physics to defy the familiar constraints of daily life and established approaches. A variety of quantum simulations, quantum sensors and quantum computers have been developed that can significantly outperform existing technologies at certain tasks.

Many quantum technologies are built on a foundation of qubits—the structures that store quantum states in ways that are practical to manipulate and interpret. Researchers and engineers are exploring many different approaches to making and using qubits, spanning platforms like superconducting circuits, trapped ions, neutral atoms and more. The various approaches have different advantages and disadvantages that are being navigated as quantum technologies are developed.

In an article published June 11, 2026 in the journal Nature Physics, a team of JILA researchers led by JILA Fellow Adam Kaufman, in collaboration with researchers at the University of Innsbruck in Austria, report experiments demonstrating the versatility of ytterbium atoms as qubits. A neutral ytterbium atom is an adaptable chameleon that can be used as multiple styles of qubit, each bringing distinct advantages. Their experiments demonstrate a quantum multitool that can tackle quantum computations, quantum simulations and precise measurements of time and also combine the capabilities associated with each application.

The group focused on a specific isotope of ytterbium, ytterbium-171, that has appealing features for multiple quantum applications. Scientists can use laser light to cool ytterbium-171 atoms, to hold the atoms in ordered arrays and to alter their quantum states. The properties of the atoms let them function as qubits in multiple ways. At a basic level, a qubit requires a pair of distinguishable states that can exist in combinations of the states called superpositions. The group’s experiments used a method they developed to transfer quantum states between three distinct ways of making qubits.

“Ytterbium-171 has long been used for state-of-the-art optical clocks and recently has become a promising candidate for neutral-atom quantum computing,” says Kaufman. “Our work here demonstrates how these directions can be combined, as well as augmented with other directions in quantum information science, including quantum many-body dynamics.”

One qubit approach used in the experiment is built on states of ytterbium-171 atoms that have been harnessed in clocks that provide incredibly precise and reliable timekeeping. Researchers put the electrons of atoms in particular states that facilitate very precise measurements. The two distinct states of ytterbium-171 used in clocks can also be the basis of a qubit—called an optical qubit.

Ytterbium-171 also has a different electron state that scientists find useful. When researchers provide additional energy to an electron, they can put the atom in a state called a Rydberg state. The extra energy pushes the electron further from the center of the atom. Putting atoms into the Rydberg state, takes them from being essentially non-interacting to being strongly interacting, which helps scientists craft quantum simulations and generate entanglement—a uniquely quantum phenomenon of quantum states where the evolution and fates of quantum states are intrinsically connected. The Rydberg state combined with one of the states from the clock qubit can function as a Rydberg qubit.

Finally, the nucleus of the atom has an inherent quantum property called spin—it is like a tiny magnet that can either point with or against a magnetic field. The group used the two states of nuclear spin pointing in opposite directions as the basis of a qubit, called a nuclear qubit. The resulting nuclear qubits are a convenient and reliable way to perform quantum computing operations.

Since the nuclear qubit is based on the spin of the nucleus, the researchers were free to use atoms with the electrons in a particular state of their choice. This let the team choose atomic states so that all three of their qubit types shared one of the states of the atom.

The group developed a way to move entangled quantum states between these distinct qubit paradigms. The team took advantage of the fact that shining a light of a particular frequency (color) can predictably change the state of the atoms even when they are entangled.

Since all three types of qubits share one of their two defining states, the superposition of that half of a qubit can be flipped to either of the alternative qubits. Then, the remaining half left in the original qubit can be moved to complete the new qubit. Since each pair of states responds to a different frequency of light, the team can alternate beams to direct the qubits through the necessary shuffling act of transferring a state.

The researchers demonstrated that they could move multi-particle states between pairs of qubits in the different paradigms and then performed an experiment bridging the three qubit styles and their corresponding domains of usefulness. They created a quantum state of the Rydberg qubit using techniques from the realm of quantum simulation and then passed it to the nuclear qubit, where they performed a quantum computing operation to slightly adjust it. Finally, they passed that state onto the clock qubit, where it could potentially be used to perform measurements related to time and frequency. The procedure demonstrates how ytterbium atoms can be the foundation of a device with the flexibility to shift between simulation, computing and metrology.

“This can connect quantum simulation to quantum computing to quantum metrology in a single atomic species,” says JILA graduate student Aruku Senoo, who was the first author of the article. “Once you make that kind of system, if you develop some technique for quantum simulation, you can apply it for quantum computing, or if you develop some state generation mechanism for quantum computing, you can apply it for quantum metrology.”

The researchers also showed that they could transfer quantum states that extended over larger numbers of qubits. The researchers at the University of Innsbruck had theoretically developed a method to calculate the optimal way to make a particular quantum state called the Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) states. The two groups worked together to identify the pulse of light needed for their experimental setup to create a GHZ state spread across as many of their qubits as they could manage. With the optimized light pulse, the team successfully made states with up to 20 Rydberg qubits at a time and then transferred them to nuclear qubits. The collaboration describes the theory behind this technique in an article published recently in the journal Physical Review Letters.

The extra steps to shuffle states around introduced more opportunities for errors to occur, but fortunately, the optical qubits provided a measurement method to circumvent many of the errors that popped up in their experiment. Using the optical qubits provided an improved method for the team to detect when tasks using Rydberg or nuclear qubits had produced an error where the atom was no longer in a valid state—for instance sometimes an atom will randomly release energy and leave the Rydberg state. Detecting one of these errors let the team throw out that measurement instead of proceeding with corrupted results.

They demonstrated that detecting such bad experimental runs could improve how reliably they made two qubits interact. Using the new technique and throwing out bad results, they achieved a two-qubit gate fidelity—a critical value used to judge a quantum computer—of 99.78% out of an ideal 100%.

“We show that we can do a very competitive two-qubit gate,” says JILA postdoctoral researcher Alexander Baumgärtner, who is an author of the paper. “It's one of the best neutral atom two-qubit gates that has been shown so far.”

The researchers say they hope that moving forward, their approach will allow the fields of quantum computing, simulation and metrology to intermix and share ideas. For instance, using quantum simulation and computing to generate useful states for quantum measurements.

“What we showed in the paper is just the beginning,” Senoo says. “What I'm excited about is pushing this forward.”

Written by Bailey Bedford, Freelance Science Communicator

In an article published June 11, 2026 in the journal Nature Physics, a team of JILA researchers led by JILA Fellow Adam Kaufman, in collaboration with researchers at the University of Innsbruck in Austria, report experiments demonstrating the versatility of ytterbium atoms as qubits. A neutral ytterbium atom is an adaptable chameleon that can be used as multiple styles of qubit, each bringing distinct advantages. Their experiments demonstrate a quantum multitool that can tackle quantum computations, quantum simulations and precise measurements of time and also combine the capabilities associated with each application.

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Alexander Aeppli receives Deborah Jin thesis award

Daniel Packman — Thu, 11 Jun 2026 15:22:20 +0000

Alexander Aeppli receives Deborah Jin thesis award Daniel Packman Thu, 06/11/2026 - 09:22

Alexander Aeppli

Physics alumnus Alexander Aeppli (PhDPhys’25) is the recipient of this year’s Deborah Jin Award for Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Research, a national honor awarded by the Division of Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics (DAMOP) of the American Physical Society. Aeppli received the award at the annual DAMOP meeting held June 1-5, 2026, in Providence, Rhode Island.

The Deborah Jin Award recognizes outstanding doctoral-level research in the areas of atomic, molecular or optical physics. Originally established in 1992, it was endowed and renamed in 2016 in honor of the late Deborah Jin, former JILA fellow and adjoint professor of physics at the �鶹ӰԺ, for her outstanding contributions to the field.

Aeppli was selected “for pioneering work that pushes the frontier of coherence times and measurement precision in optical lattice clocks,” according to the award citation.

“It’s a wonderful honor to receive this award in recognition of my PhD,” said Aeppli. “I have looked up to many of the past thesis prize winners, so joining their ranks is indeed humbling.”

Aeppli completed his doctoral research with Professor and JILA Fellow Jun Ye, whom he credits for providing “consistent guidance and support.” While this is nominally an individual award, Aeppli said it represents a collective effort.

“I would not have received this award if I did not have the support of this excellent department, the wealth of knowledge and community at JILA, and many brilliant mentors and peers,” he said.

Now working as a quantum engineer at Atom Computing, Aeppli is building quantum computers using many of the same techniques he learned during his PhD.

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A new kind of entanglement helps quantum sensors tune out noise

Daniel Packman — Wed, 10 Jun 2026 20:03:05 +0000

A new kind of entanglement helps quantum sensors tune out noise Daniel Packman Wed, 06/10/2026 - 14:03

Kirsten Apodaca / CU �鶹ӰԺ Physics

In a quest to build the most accurate quantum sensors in the world, scientists are constantly improving their performance. Making them more precise. More stable and reliable.

But eventually, physical constraints will prevent further improvements.

“You cannot pack more atoms in a quantum sensor because at some point, they start colliding and disturbing each other, affecting the performance of the sensor,” says Ana Maria Rey, a JILA and NIST fellow and professor adjoint of physics at the �鶹ӰԺ.

Even the most precise sensors in the world are not fully isolated but subject to noise — subtle disturbances from the environment like vibrations, electromagnetic fields or temperature changes.

So, Rey along with JILA Fellow James K. Thompson and colleagues from the Niels Bohr Institute, the Joint Quantum Institute and the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, asked; how can we improve the next generation of sensors despite these limitations?

One promising idea is to use quantum entanglement, so atoms are connected to each other and working together as a system. When atoms are entangled, they share properties even when separated by distance. In principle, this allows for more precise measurements. But entangled atoms are still subject to noise.

“Entangled states are well understood for estimating a single parameter, but our goal was to create an entangled state that is highly sensitive to a parameter difference between two nodes of a sensor network,” says Raphael Kaubruegger, a research associate at JILA.

The researchers set out to identify a new class of entangled state that could filter out noise affecting both sensors. They then developed two ways to create these states inside an optical cavity, a pair of mirrors about one inch apart that bounce photons back and forth. They describe the state and two methods to create it in a recent paper published in Physical Review X.

Lieb-Mattis state

Photon exchange through an optical cavity links two atomic ensembles, creating a shared entangled state. This entanglement is designed to be insensitive to common noise while remaining highly sensitive to differential signals.

The entangled state they identified uses decoherence-free subspaces which are protected from certain types of disturbances to quiet noise affecting both sensors.

Lasers are used to create coherent superposition between two internal states of an atom but to accomplish that, the laser’s frequency needs to exactly match the atomic transition.

The challenge, as Rey explains, is that even the most precise lasers cannot maintain a stable frequency for long enough. These laser frequency instabilities generate a noise which is equally experienced by both sensors and currently one of the most detrimental errors in state-of-the-artclocks. “Ideally, one would like to prepare the atoms in a state that is insensitive to this type of noise,” says Rey.

“The state we create is entanglement between these atoms, but in a way that you cannot distinguish which atom is in which ensemble,” says Rey. “They are fully symmetrized.”

“After the fact, we realized this was the same kind of state people were thinking about to describe antiferromagnets, or quantum magnets,” says James Thompson, JILA and NIST fellow and professor adjoint of physics.

In condensed matter physics, the Lieb-Mattis state describes a quantum version of an antiferromagnet, where two groups of atoms act like they point in opposite directions, but without the system picking one fixed direction in space.

A coherent and unitary approach

One method the team developed to prepare the desired state involves entangling two nodes of a sensor network by engineering a “spin exchange,” by having the atoms send photons back and forth through an optical cavity. This leads to a state where each atom in one node is perfectly anticorrelated with an atom in the other. If one atom is “up,” the other atom is “down.”

Thompson likens this approach to baseball, where each ensemble is a baseball team. The teams are throwing balls, or in this case photons, to each other. Every time a ball is thrown, the other team catches it. Thompson adds it’s important that we don’t know which player threw the ball or who caught it.

“That’s what builds these links,” says Thompson. “If a ball is thrown, it is definitely caught.”

The approach produces Heisenberg scaling, or the best possible precision scaling where all the atoms act as one quantum object.

Losing a photon is not all that bad

Optical cavities are not perfect. As Rey explains, sometimes you may lose a photon. The team’s second approach takes this into account.

Inside the optical cavity, photons can bounce back and forth between very reflective mirrors about 100,000 times before they accidentally slip through to the other side.

“We are losing photons, but the important part is that the photons are lost in a collective way,” says Rey.

Because it’s impossible to tell which atom is to blame, this can create entanglement — driving them into a state where they cannot lose more photons.

“At some point they get really good at not dropping the ball anymore,” says Thompson.

“They go into a ‘dark state,’ or a state where the phases of the emitted photons completely cancel out, leading to what it is known as destructive interference,” adds Rey.

What came as a surprise to the team, was initially they were trying to understand the detrimental effect of losing those photons. But as Rey explains, ultimately this type of dissipation actually led them to a state they wanted.

“The state we initially wanted to prepare was one in which half the atoms are excited, but the system cannot collectively emit a photon,” adds Kaubruegger.

Bridging theory with experiment for real-world applications

The team’s proposed states can be created quickly, and more importantly, faster as the system gets larger, making them practical for scaling quantum sensors.

“People have thought about this kind of state when you only have two atoms, which is cool, but you’d like to use more,” says Thompson. “It turns out, the more atoms you have, the better!”

By making quantum sensors more precise, these entangled states could one day help guide navigation when GPS is unavailable or reveal hidden underground resources such as minerals, oil, or gas.

Close collaborations between theorists and experimentalists have been key to this work. The groups inspire each other – and keep each other in check. Because they work so closely together, Kaubruegger says they have a deeper understanding of the challenges experimentalists face.

And now, the ball, so to speak, is in Thompson’s group’s hands; to demonstrate the state in experiment.

New research led by Professors and JILA Fellows Ana Maria Rey and James Thompson published in Physical Review X proposes a new entangled state for atoms in a quantum sensor. The team’s methods can be created quickly, and more importantly, faster as the system gets larger, making them practical for scaling quantum sensors.

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An Atomic Clock That Stays Cool and Can Rock and Roll Without Losing Time

Steven Burrows — Thu, 09 Apr 2026 15:07:45 +0000

An Atomic Clock That Stays Cool and Can Rock and Roll Without Losing Time Steven Burrows Thu, 04/09/2026 - 09:07

Bailey Bedford / Freelance Science Communicator

A new proposal shows how guiding atoms through a controlled loop of low-energy states using an additional atomic state and a second color of light can eliminate the heating that has long hindered superradiant atomic clocks. The design also makes the laser more robust to vibrations, as coordinated interactions among atoms help keep them synchronized even when the cavity is disturbed.

In popular culture, lasers are often portrayed as portable blasters that superheat whatever they hit. Some lasers do deliver tremendous amounts of energy in reality, but for scientists and engineers, lasers often need to do more than deliver just raw power. They need to deliver a very precise frequency—color—of light.

Precise lasers open many opportunities for experiments and technologies, notably atomic clocks, which offer the most precise timekeeping in the world. Atomic clocks are used in experiments, such as searches for dark matter, and they also make possible everyday technologies, like GPS. Currently, the most precise lasers, and therefore the most precise atomic clocks, are bulky and can be disrupted by small vibrations or changes in temperature, which limits their applications.

In an article published April 9, 2026, in the journal Physical Review Letters, JILA graduate student Jarrod Reilly proposed a new laser design that may allow for greater precision while making lasers more compact and robust. The design was developed along with JILA Fellows Murray Holland and John Cooper, as well as Simon Jäger—who was formerly a JILA postdoctoral researcher and is now an international collaborator at the University of Bonn in Germany. It builds on prior research they and their colleagues at JILA have performed, and their analysis indicated that it solves multiple problems that have limited past experiments. The improvements suggest a way that future atomic clocks can be both more precise and more convenient.

“Time and frequency are the two physical quantities that humans can measure the best,” Holland says. “This high sensitivity allows us to make measurements that are incredibly precise. Pushing it further opens up new domains where we could look farther than we've ever been able to look before.”

The new design is for a type of laser called a superradiant laser, and having a reliable superradiant laser is necessary to create a new type of compact atomic clock called an active atomic clock. Superradiant lasers that could enable active atomic clocks were first proposed by JILA researchers in 2009, and JILA researchers continue to refine the technology. Active atomic clocks use similar principles to standard atomic clocks but include some important tweaks.

Both traditional and active atomic clocks take advantage of the fact that atoms have quantum states which researchers can link together using light. Light comes in quantum packets that each carry a certain amount of energy that corresponds to its frequency—how quickly the light waves oscillate. An atom can be pushed from its initial state into a higher-energy state by hitting it with light of the right frequency. An atom with extra energy will sometimes release light to return to a lower-energy state. The consistent waves of light associated with a particular transition between chosen high- and low-energy atomic states can play a role similar to the steady swinging of a pendulum in a grandfather clock.

Traditional atomic clocks shine a laser on atoms and monitor when the atoms interact with the light at the correct frequency. An active atomic clock, instead, uses many atoms releasing light to create a laser with the desired frequency.

Making an active atomic clock requires getting all the atoms to work together to produce the superradiant laser. If too few atoms emit light at a time, nothing will be observed, and if different atoms simultaneously emit light in the wrong way, the resulting wave that is generated may lose coherence and become unusable.

To coordinate atoms, researchers put them in a special cavity where light bounces between two mirrors. The cavity maintains the frequency of light needed to interact with the atoms and encourages them to synchronize. The process resembles performers coordinating their dance steps by all listening to the same music.

In 2012, Holland collaborated with JILA Fellow James Thompson and demonstrated in experiments that superradiant lasers worked. But there was a hiccup: The process only worked for short periods at a time, and the laser ended up as a series of pulses, which couldn’t be used directly as an active atomic clock. The chamber coordinated the atoms releasing the desired frequency of light. However, when the atoms were put into the chosen energetic state, each atom emitted a small amount of extra light without any coordination. This unpredictable emission resulted in random motion that heated the atoms and eventually disrupted the synchronization needed for superradiance.

The new proposal suggests a method to eliminate the heating. Reilly, who is the first author of the paper, realized the atoms could be guided throughout the entire process and avoid the heating. Reilly observed that utilizing an additional state in the atom allows an experiment to use a different color of light to direct atoms through the troublesome step.

To make it work, he had to select an atom with two very similar states when the atom has as little energy as possible. Researchers can supply light to move the atoms between the two low-energy states. Then, placing the atoms in that additional low-energy state allows a second color of light to be introduced into a cavity that coordinates how the atoms move to the selected energetic state.

Now, the atoms are guided through more than the single dance step of producing the desired frequency. The experiment directs the atoms through a full loop of states, with a scientist controlling where all the energy goes. Each step is carefully managed, and the extra energy is predictably directed away from the atoms, where it can be easily handled.

The group used ideas from particle physics to develop a simulation of the quantum process that Reilly had identified. The simulation showed that the process should eliminate the heating that had previously prevented the creation of active atomic clocks using superradiant lasers.

“This heating rate should be so low that it would be easily manageable in a real apparatus,” Holland says.

But they went beyond eliminating the heating problem. They also discovered that the new design made the laser less sensitive to the shaking of the chamber than prior methods. The atoms didn’t just interact with the light in the cavity but with each other, like performers who can hear each other singing to the music. The new controlled transitions and extra light bouncing back and forth in the cavity should help the atoms interact and remain coordinated. If the cavity is slightly disrupted, it is like the music temporarily cutting out or being distorted, but the singing helps keep the performers coordinated nonetheless.

With increased coordination, the atoms should depend largely on synchronization with each other and less on the cavity, so shaking the cavity shouldn’t have much effect. The researchers used the simulation to show that there are certain ways to set up the experiment in which the frequency of the laser is not sensitive to vibrations of the cavity’s mirrors at all.

“What they're measuring in a clock is that frequency,” Reilly says. “The big-game-changer is that it becomes completely insensitive to vibrations, which people have spent 20 years trying to overcome. You could jump up and down next to the experiment, and in a regular clock, you'd see the color change, but you can jump up and down next to our clock and not see the color change. It should stay stable.”

The researchers also used their simulations to show that even when individual atoms fall out of sync with the others, it shouldn’t disrupt the superradiance—a known problem with some previous methods.

The team says they hope to see the proposal realized in an experiment, and they also want to combine their idea with another concept for the next generation of clocks: nuclear clocks. Nuclear clocks are similar to atomic clocks but use the quantum states of nuclei. The researchers believe their new superradiance technique could solve a lingering issue with nuclear clocks and provide a path to a new generation of unprecedentedly accurate timepieces.

Researchers at JILA propose a new superradiant laser design for next-generation “active” atomic clocks that eliminates atom-heating and vibration sensitivity, two major obstacles that have limited precision and practicality. By carefully guiding atoms through a controlled loop of quantum states, the approach could enable compact, robust atomic—and potentially nuclear—clocks that maintain extreme accuracy even under physical disturbances.

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Breaking The Laser Stability Record Using New Crystalline Mirrors

Steven Burrows — Wed, 18 Feb 2026 15:25:03 +0000

Breaking The Laser Stability Record Using New Crystalline Mirrors Steven Burrows Wed, 02/18/2026 - 08:25

Bailey Bedford / Freelance Science Communicator

A Crystalline Coated 6cm Silicon Cavity. Image credit: Steven Burrows / JILA

In a mirror maze, finding yourself between two mirrors is designed to leave you disoriented and feeling a little unstable. In contrast, getting caught between two mirrors can be incredibly stabilizing for laser light. Scientists make lasers with incredibly stable frequencies by using optical cavities, which are mirrored chambers where light bounces back and forth hundreds of thousands of times.

Researchers at JILA have a long history of improving laser technologies and working with optical cavities. While pushing the limits of laser stability and precision, they have found a plethora of potential disturbances that they have to address to maintain stable frequencies. A tiny vibration, such as from a shaking pump in the lab, can negatively impact the operation of an optical cavity if unchecked.

A team of researchers, led by JILA and National Institute of Standards and Technology Fellow and �鶹ӰԺ Physics professor Jun Ye, has been pushing the limits of stable laser technology for more than two decades, and the team has seen signs that the natural motion of atoms that make up the mirror coatings limit their performance. Overcoming this effect and improving the stability of lasers could unlock new opportunities for experiments, like gravitational wave detectors, and improved technologies, like better atomic clocks.

So, the researchers sought an improved mirror coating. In recent experiments, Ye and his group have collaborated with a team led by Thomas Legero and Uwe Sterr at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt in Germany; together, the researchers have tested a new style of crystalline mirror coating expected to mitigate the negative impact of the ways atoms collectively move in the mirror’s structure. In an article published in the journal Physical Review Letters on Jan. 20, 2026, they described the experiment and the unparalleled stability the new coatings allowed them to achieve.

“So far, it had never been demonstrated that these coatings can support superior performance at the state-of-the-art level,” says Dahyeon Lee, a JILA postdoctoral researcher and first author of the article. “This work actually shows that these crystalline coatings give you four times better performance than traditional mirror coatings, while at the same time demonstrating the lowest instability of all optical cavities.”

Optical cavities are so useful in making precision lasers because light wants to naturally fall into certain frequencies when it is trapped between two reflective walls. A particular distance between two mirrors will support certain frequencies while discouraging others. But any vibration of the mirrors or any stretching or contracting of the chamber can interfere with the process and prevent the light from settling precisely into a specific frequency.

Members of Ye’s lab have long ago addressed the most obvious disruptions—like the vibrations of the cooling system that is necessary to keep the cavity working optimally. By using excellent equipment and being vigilant about tamping down vibrations, they have reached a point where things normally run so smoothly that they can see signs of their performance being impaired by the collective motion of all the atoms making up the mirror coating used in the cavity. Inside any solid object, atoms aren’t perfectly still, but depending on the structure of the material, they can all coordinate their motion in particular ways. Certain disturbances of a laser can be dealt with just by averaging the laser’s frequency for a certain amount of time, but the collective movement of the atoms in the mirrors couldn’t be dealt with so easily.

“This is a very special experiment where you can think about both engineering and physics,” says Zoey Hu, a JILA graduate student and author of the article. “What we're really doing here sounds like a simple thing—you're just keeping two mirrors as stable as possible with respect to each other. But when it comes to doing just that one simple thing, there are actually so many little details you have to think about and address.”

To address the collective atomic motion, one of the details the team has considered is how atoms behave in different materials. The new crystalline mirror coatings are made of aluminum, gallium and arsenic and have a structure that keeps the atoms locked more tightly in place than the atoms in the established coatings, which are made from silicon dioxide and tantalum pentoxide and have a more amorphous structure. The strict crystalline structure of the new coatings means the atom’s collective motion experiences less natural loss of energy and fewer random fluctuations in their motion, which should improve the stability of the frequency in experiments.

To show that the coatings were competitive with existing state-of-the-art technologies, the group had to put in some work, including installing the mirror coatings in a high-quality silicon cavity, cooling the cavity down to its frigid optimal temperature (17 K) and ensuring that the system operated smoothly. All their efforts paid off, and the system delivered a more stable frequency than the established coatings could. The coatings require some additional effort to work with, but the results show that the effort can deliver increased stability when the need arises.

“With this technology, and because we already have some other nice cavities, we can show better performance than you could get from any other laser in the world,” says Ben Lewis, a JILA postdoctoral researcher and author of the article. “The crystalline coatings are harder to work with. They're more finicky. But if you want to push and get better performance, they're one of the ways that you can.”

Lewis went on to say that the frequency is tied to the average distance the light travels between reflections and that the stability of their laser frequency averaged over a period of 10 seconds translates into knowing the length of the light’s journey to less than 1 percent of the width of a proton.

Since the coatings produced such great results, the group combined them with another technique that is known to be useful in increasing the stability of a laser frequency when another laser at the same frequency is available. They performed a process, called optical frequency averaging, where two cavities are simultaneously used and the frequency is averaged together. The other cavity used conventional coatings, but its length is more than three times longer, which is an alternative approach to increasing a cavity’s frequency stability. They demonstrated that the technique could increase the resulting frequency stability even further.

The group also shared data they collected that showed how the frequencies of four cryogenic silicon cavities have slowly changed over time. These cavities, located at either JILA or PTB, achieve the best performance currently possible for stable lasers. The frequency observed for each cavity naturally drifts after it is assembled, but over time, the drifting slows down. The data showed the changes of two cavities with the new mirror coatings and two with the established coatings. The exact role the coatings play in producing the drift remains a mystery, but the new data provides clues and indicates that the cavities with new coatings stabilized more quickly than the more established coatings.

While the group has already set a new record for laser frequency stability with the setup, the team is optimistic that the approaches used in these experiments will deliver even better results in the future. They are continuing to observe the cavity with the new coatings to see how it behaves in the long run and to use the cavity in new experiments, including applying it to keeping time.

“We know these cavities are stable and may be much better than the traditional way of doing timekeeping,” Lee says. “We're trying to reimagine how timekeeping can be done in the future by using these silicon cavities as a stable ticking machine.”

JILA researchers, working with collaborators in Germany, demonstrated that new crystalline mirror coatings dramatically reduce atomic-level noise in optical cavities, enabling lasers with record‑breaking frequency stability. By outperforming traditional coatings by a factor of four, these mirrors open the door to more precise experiments and future advances in technologies such as atomic clocks and gravitational‑wave detection.

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Nuclear Clockwork: Experiments Highlight Reproducibility of Nuclear Transition Frequency

Steven Burrows — Fri, 06 Feb 2026 18:32:10 +0000

Nuclear Clockwork: Experiments Highlight Reproducibility of Nuclear Transition Frequency Steven Burrows Fri, 02/06/2026 - 11:32

Artistic representation of a ²²⁹Th nucleus hosted inside a CaF2 crystal experiencing a local electric field gradient. The ²²⁹Th nuclear electric quadrupole moment interacts with the electric field, leading to split energy levels. Image credit: Steven Burrows / JILA

To be useful, clocks need to be consistent. Imagine two spies who synchronize their watches; they rely on them agreeing days or months later, even if one of them must take a frigid hike through arctic tundra. In many experiments, scientists similarly require that their clock is accurate to a tiny sliver of a second and that it will work the same as their colleague’s clock on the other side of the world.

Currently, when keeping time really counts, scientists and engineers turn to atomic clocks. Atomic clocks use the physics that governs the interactions between electrons and light. They can be so accurate that they could run for tens of billions of years without getting off by a second. These clocks have been used for research, such as experiments studying quantum many-body physics and relativity, and have enabled technologies, including GPS. But scientists are not satisfied. Researchers are exploring the potential of nuclear clocks to use the same principles to deliver even more precise results or to fit into an even smaller device.

JILA has been a leader in atomic clock and nuclear clock research, and in 2024 a team of researchers, led by JILA and National Institute of Standards and Technology Fellow and �鶹ӰԺ Physics professor Jun Ye, reported crucial research where they measured the first high-resolution spectrum of the nuclear transition of thorium and determined the absolute frequency of the transition. Ye and other scientists hope these transitions of thorium nuclei will be the ticking hearts of future nuclear clocks. However, there is still a lot for scientists to learn before nuclear clocks have a chance at becoming the gold standard for precision time keeping. For instance, researchers need to understand how nuclear transitions respond to things like changes in temperature, make sure that nuclear clocks can be made with a shared reproducible frequency and determine if they remain reliable over extended periods of time.

In new experiments, Ye and his colleagues have looked at crystals containing thorium to better understand how they might be used in nuclear clocks, including testing three crystal samples many times over the course of a year to check if their properties unexpectedly fluctuated over that time. In an article published in the journal Nature on January 28, 2026, they described the stability of three crystals observed over the course of multiple months, how the crystals responded to temperature changes, and how the different concentrations of thorium in each crystal affected their properties. The results revealed that the crystals have a promising stability and reproducibility and provided insights into future experiments and how similar crystals might be incorporated into high quality clocks.

“Checking frequency reproducibility, both between different host crystals and over an extended period of time, is the first step towards a systematic evaluation of the performance of the nuclear clock,” says Ye.

The group studied three crystals fabricated by Thorsten Schumm’s lab at the Technical University of Vienna. Each crystal was made of calcium fluoride but with some of the calcium atoms replaced with thorium atoms. The crystals each contained different concentrations of thorium. When the thorium atoms are in their lowest energy quantum state, Ye’s group can observe how they interact with particular frequencies of light to make their nucleus jump to higher energy states. They found that there are five transitions that they can trigger with slightly different frequencies of light. The frequencies of these transitions are critical to using thorium in a nuclear clock.

“It’s critical that Thorsten’s lab has provided three different Thorium-doped crystals, which allowed us to study the line width broadening mechanisms and the level of line center reproducibility,” says Ooi.

These interactions and frequencies follow essentially the same physics as the transitions of atoms used in atomic clocks. However, the states of the nucleus are less sensitive to fluctuations of the electric and magnetic fields around them than the states of atoms. Additionally, the nuclear states can be used even when the atoms are embedded in a crystal, unlike the states used for atomic clocks; this difference allows a nuclear clock using a crystal to have a clearer signal by using many more of the relevant atoms while perhaps also being packaged in a smaller device.

Ye’s lab previously studied how one of these crystals behaved at three different temperatures. In the new article, they continued to look at that crystal along with two others with lower concentrations of thorium.

The researchers observed that over the course of the year the properties of the first crystal were stable. The two additional crystals demonstrated the same frequency as the first and also delivered reproducible results when repeated measurements were made months apart. The fluctuations the team observed were stable to around a tenth of a trillionth of the frequency of the measured transition and are limited by the experiment’s measurement precision. These results are promising for researchers to be able to use such crystals to fabricate reliable clocks.

“We are able to show that even over the span of almost a year, we can measure the nuclear transition frequency in these crystals over and over again, and they're very consistent,” says Tian Ooi, a graduate student at JILA and first author of the paper.
The team did find some variations in the crystals’ performances based on the concentration of thorium. While the thorium all interacted with light of the same wavelength, how precisely they responded to the specific frequency varied. The state’s transition will sometimes respond to nearby frequencies and the group defines this extended range of interaction frequencies as the “line width” of the transition.

The group found that the line widths were considerably wider than theoretical calculations had predicted and that they depended on the thorium concentration with greater amounts of thorium producing broader line widths. The researchers propose that the broadening of the width may be caused by the substitution of thorium creating a subtle microstrain in the crystal’s structure that influences the nuclear transitions by making the electric field vary unevenly inside the material.

“This was an unexpected surprise,” says Ooi. “People didn’t anticipate how large this microstrain effect would be.”

Further research is needed to explain the effect and determine if it can be eliminated. Minimizing the line width is a critical factor in designing a high-performance nuclear clock, but high concentrations will also help researchers get a clear signal. So, researchers need to understand this relationship and, if possible, produce crystals with narrower line widths.

The group also continued their research into how the nuclear transition of thorium varied with temperature. They took measurements at more temperatures than they previously had, and for all three crystals, they looked at both the transition that varied the most and the transition that varied least with changes in temperature. The researchers found that the frequencies of the crystals were consistent with each other and identified the point where the material’s changes in response to temperature shift from decreasing the frequency to increasing it, which is where the impact of any temperature fluctuation is smallest. This temperature will likely be the most practical temperature to keep the crystal at when operating a nuclear clock.

The experiments also let the team map out the response of the transition that varies the most with temperature. Based on the results, the researchers suggest that in the future nuclear clocks can monitor that more sensitive frequency to record the temperature so that fluctuations to the least sensitive transition can be rapidly corrected.

Now that the group has these insights, they plan to continue studying these crystals, investigate why the line widths vary between crystals and chart a path to a future with nuclear clocks as a valuable timekeeping tool.

“I think what this paper shows is that we're moving from measuring the clock transition to really investigating how good this clock can be,” Ooi says. “There’s still interesting things to figure out, but this is one of the big steps that we have to take to show that solid-state nuclear clocks are viable.”

_{The authors acknowledge funding support from National Science Foundation QLCI OMA-2016244, DOE quantum center of Quantum System Accelerator, Army Research Office (W911NF2010182), Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FA9550-19-1-0148), National Science Foundation PHY-2317149, and National Institute of Standards and Technology. Part of this work has been funded by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant Agreement No. 856415) and the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) [Grant DOI: 10.55776/F1004, 10.55776/J4834, 10.55776/ PIN9526523]. The project 23FUN03 HIOC [Grant DOI: 10.13039/100019599] has received funding from the European Partnership on Metrology, co-financed from the European Union’s Horizon Europe Research and Innovation Program and by the Participating States. We thank the National Isotope Development Center of DoE and Oak Ridge National Laboratory for providing the Th-229 used in this work.}

JILA researchers have taken a major step toward realizing next‑generation nuclear clocks by studying how thorium‑doped crystals behave over time. In new experiments published in Nature, the team tracked the stability, temperature response, and reproducibility of three calcium‑fluoride crystals containing different concentrations of thorium. Over nearly a year of measurements, all three crystals demonstrated remarkably stable nuclear transition frequencies—an essential requirement for building reliable nuclear clocks.

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JILA Researchers Overturn 25-Year-Old Explanation of Benzene Formation in Space

Steven Burrows — Fri, 09 Jan 2026 18:21:00 +0000

JILA Researchers Overturn 25-Year-Old Explanation of Benzene Formation in Space Steven Burrows Fri, 01/09/2026 - 11:21

Bailey Bedford / Freelance Science Communicator

Interstellar formation of PAHs terminates at C6H5+. Image credit: Steven Burrows / JILA

Space is famously empty. The cold vacuum of space—or more specifically, the interstellar medium—lacks much of anything, including the air needed to conduct sound. But it isn’t quite completely empty. While it’s vacant compared to what we experience in daily life, there are occasional atoms and molecules spread throughout it.

Those atoms and molecules mean that there is chemistry in space, although it doesn’t always resemble the dense, warm reactions that routinely occur in a chemist’s test tubes. One aspect of chemistry in space that researchers are interested in is the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are molecules of carbon and hydrogen that make a broad array of chemicals on earth and in the void of space. Researchers have seen signs of light interacting with a variety of these molecules in space and being absorbed—leaving a distinctive fingerprint in the remaining light that reaches Earth. These molecules are estimated to contain somewhere between a tenth and a quarter of the carbon spread across the interstellar medium, and the molecules’ foundational building blocks are benzene (C₆H₆)—a ring of six carbon atoms, each holding a hydrogen atom.

Since 1999, researchers have had a model that they thought explained how benzene formed from smaller molecules. However, the challenges of performing experiments at the low temperatures and densities involved in mimicking the conditions in the interstellar medium have meant that researchers have relied on their theoretical understanding of the process and haven’t thoroughly tested it in experiments.

Now, JILA Fellow and �鶹ӰԺ Physics Professor Heather Lewandowski and members of her lab have used tools developed in physics laboratories to recreate the necessary conditions and have investigated how the chemistry plays out. The team described their experiment in an article published in the journal Nature Astronomy in May 2025. When they tested the process, the first steps played out as expected, but then they were surprised to find that the benzene failed to form at the final step. Their results give scientists a new window into how chemistry occurs in the interstellar medium and reopens the question of how carbon gets caught up in PAHs throughout space.

The key to recreating the chemistry occurring in the interstellar medium was creating a vacuum in a chamber and using lasers to cool molecules and hold them in place in the vacated space. This required the researchers to look at just a small number of molecules and to set aside the beakers and test tubes that are stereotypical of chemistry and instead rely on large metal chambers, air pumps, laser beams and many mirrors and lenses.

“It's a laboratory full of lasers, and vacuum chambers, and optics,” Lewandowski says. “It fills up half a room to be able to cool down these hundred little molecules.”

Selecting the right color of laser and aligning the beams correctly allows the researchers to suspend—trap—particles in a vacuum chamber as well as cool them down through a process called laser cooling. Laser cooling relies on the fact that light can give atoms and molecules a shove to slow them down and that the interaction can be tailored to depend on how the particles are moving. Carefully applied, laser cooling can get molecules down to temperatures just above absolute zero.

“Laser cooling and trapping has really been in the domain of physicists,” Lewandowski says. “The nice thing about JILA is we have physicists and chemists working together. In my own group, we have both backgrounds, and so we have the tools now that can answer these questions that really chemists didn't have the technology to tackle and physicists didn't know it was an interesting question to answer.”

These techniques allow them to focus on a small number of molecules and get a close look at the interactions that normally are obscured in a chaos of many reactions occurring rapidly and simultaneously.

With the equipment creating the needed conditions, the group started following the proposed recipe for creating benzene in the interstellar medium. The recipe’s main ingredient is a molecule of two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms, called acetylene (C₂H₂). The first step is mixing acetylene with molecules containing two nitrogen atoms and one hydrogen atom (N₂H⁺). The nitrogen atoms can provide their hydrogen atom to create new molecules with two carbon and three hydrogen atoms. That opens the door to two more steps of interactions with acetylene molecules to produce a molecule with six carbon atoms and five hydrogen atoms (C₆H₅⁺)—just one hydrogen short of the target benzene ring. The exact behavior of this molecule is not thoroughly understood, but the established recipe proposed that it could form benzene by capturing a molecule made from a pair of hydrogens and then letting the excess atoms go.

The team supplied just enough of the needed ingredients in the chamber so that it was improbable that more than two molecules would be reacting at a time. Using laser cooling, they cooled the molecules in the chamber down to just a few degrees Kelvin. This setup let them recreate what happens when two lonely molecules finally come together in space and get the chance to interact.

The group repeatedly ran the experiment, stopping after different amounts of time to eject the cloud of molecules and check which molecules had been formed. They saw the mixture progress through the expected steps of the recipe. They observed increases of various molecules as they were created and then decreases as they were consumed in the construction of even larger molecules. But as they waited progressively longer and longer, they never caught sight of any benzene rings. The mixture in the chamber eventually just reached a steady amount of C₆H₅⁺, and the final step of the recipe failed to occur.

“Initially we were very confused—and a little irritated—because we could never get the final reaction to happen,” says JILA postdoctoral researcher G. Stephen Kocheril, the lead author of the paper.

After performing several runs of the experiment and analyzing the data, the team concluded that the expected chain of events wasn’t happening and there must be something else occurring to produce all the benzene in space.

“None of the models now actually predict what's out there,” Lewandowski says. “If you look at observations of how many of these molecules we have out there, no model works. So we sort of said, ‘this model isn't it.’ We don't have a new model yet; that's what we're working on now. So it was kind of big for the community because it changed how larger and larger carbon-containing molecules are formed in space.”

Moving beyond the old explanation gives chemists insights into how they should think about the formation of these molecules and provides astronomers with new clues about which molecules they should be keeping an eye out for if they want to understand the chemistry happening out in the interstellar medium.

JILA Fellow and �鶹ӰԺ Physics Professor Heather Lewandowski and members of her lab have shattered a 25-year-old theory about how benzene forms in the interstellar medium, revealing that the long-accepted chemical recipe doesn’t work under space-like conditions. Their groundbreaking laser-cooling experiments open a new chapter in understanding the origins of complex carbon molecules in the cosmos.

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Narrowing In: Cooling Molecules with Light Like Never Before

Steven Burrows — Tue, 23 Dec 2025 18:23:49 +0000

Narrowing In: Cooling Molecules with Light Like Never Before Steven Burrows Tue, 12/23/2025 - 11:23

Kenna Hughes-Castleberry / JILA Science Communicator

Narrowline Laser Cooling and Spectroscopy of Molecules via Stark States. Image credit: Steven Burrows / JILA

Atoms have long been the cornerstone of laser cooling experiments. Their relatively simple structure makes them straightforward to cool with light, allowing scientists to achieve temperatures near absolute zero. Molecules, by contrast, present a much more formidable challenge. With complex rotational, vibrational, and electronic states, they’re significantly harder to tame.

Now, in a study published in Physical Review X Quantum, a team led by JILA and NIST Fellow and �鶹ӰԺ physics professor Jun Ye has demonstrated—for the first time—narrowline laser cooling of a molecule. By utilizing a previously unaddressed transition in the diatomic molecule yttrium monoxide (YO), the researchers have developed a new approach to manipulate internal states and molecular motion with unprecedented precision.

The advance not only redefines the quantum state control available to laser-cooled molecules, but also lays the foundation for future advancements in quantum simulation, precision measurement, and the potential development of a molecular clock.

From Nuisance to Narrowline

This research relies on a unique property of the yttrium monoxide (YO) molecule: the existence of a long-lived excited electronic state. The longer natural lifetime an excited state possesses, the narrower its transition linewidth is. And these extraordinarily narrow features enable unparalleled spectroscopic precision and can be used to cool molecules below currently achievable temperatures.

It is worth noting that although the long-lived excited state in YO offers immense potential, until recently, it had only provided additional challenges. “If anything, I would say this excited state has historically been a nuisance to laser cooling,” says JILA graduate student Kameron Mehling, the paper’s first author. “Its very presence forced us to modify the already complicated photon cycling schemes necessary to cool YO to begin with.”

Nevertheless, the JILA team has finally harnessed the long-lived electronic state in YO, more than a decade after the idea was initially proposed. By precisely addressing the narrow transition with an ultra-stable laser, they were able to slow down the motion of the molecules (cooling them) via the newly addressed excited state.

Molecules can be cooled with laser light by continuously scattering photons — a technique where matter repeatedly absorbs and emits photons over and over, removing energy and entropy in the process. While this technique has become commonplace for atoms, molecules are trickier due to their extra complexity: they rotate, vibrate, and possess close-lying opposite parity states, making it hard to keep the cycle going.

“This excited state has been continuously occupied as a decay pathway within our previously implemented cycling schemes,” Mehling explains. “However, this is the first time that we’re directly exciting it and exploring the resulting physics.”

The team’s results rely on one of the most accurate spectroscopic measurements ever made in a laser-cooled molecule—resolving the narrowline transition frequency to 11 digits of precision. This highlights the potential of narrowline transitions in laser-cooled molecules for future precision experiments and opened the door for laser cooling.

Expanding the Molecular Control Toolbox

To make narrowline laser cooling practical, the team had to address a longstanding challenge: preventing the molecules from leaking out of the cooling cycle. Their solution came from an unexpected but powerful source—an applied electric field.

In YO, certain energy states come in nearly identical pairs of opposite parity—like twins (think Kameron and Kendall Mehling) with mirrored personalities. It might seem subtle, but mixing up the twins opens unwanted photon “communication” channels and jeopardizes the photon cycling scheme. However, by applying a small electric field, the researchers could identify and isolate a single metastable excited state (i.e. twin) which the laser could repeatedly interact with.

“You have to use another tool in the toolbox,” says JILA postdoctoral researcher Simon Scheidegger.

“Usually in atomic experiments, researchers use light and magnetic fields. But for this, we had to bring in electric fields to isolate the states we care about.”

And the amount of electric field needed? Surprisingly small!

“Other molecular experiments might need 10 to 20 kilovolts per centimeter to observe a similar effect” notes Scheidegger. “We apply fields four orders of magnitude smaller, requiring less voltage than what’s in a AA battery.”

Cooling on the Fly

To demonstrate laser cooling, the team prepared a cloud of ultracold YO molecules and let them fall freely under gravity. While the molecules dropped, they were exposed to carefully tuned laser light and their change in temperature was recorded as the laser frequency was varied.

Despite a brief interaction window, the results were clear: the technique cooled the molecules by a small but significant amount. “Currently we’re limited by how many photons we can scatter off the molecules,” says JILA postdoctoral researcher Logan Hillberry. “Nevertheless, at ultralow temperatures, you are fighting for every additional cooling photon.” The fact laser cooling was demonstrated with only a handful of photons per molecule is particularly impressive —a testament to the technique's efficiency!

“This initial laser cooling demonstration proves we can implement a photon cycling scheme on our narrowline transition, however, there is still plenty of work to be done” says Mengjie Chen, another graduate student on the project. “Since our molecular structure is very well understood, we know we could greatly enhance the cooling effect with only a couple more laser tones.” These future upgrades, along with incorporating the narrowline laser cooling scheme while molecules are trapped in an optical potential, would help initialize record phase space densities and reach currently inaccessible temperatures.

How a Narrow Transition Unlocks Broad Applications

These results suggest more than just a technical milestone— it is a “planting the flag” moment, as the team put it. Narrowline transitions have enabled some of our most precise experiments, like atomic clocks and ongoing searches for fundamental physics. Extending that precision to molecules will unlock entirely new physics. Beyond just laser cooling, the team envisions broad applications across quantum simulation and precision measurements —where molecules are suited to outperform laser-cooled atoms due to their strong electric dipoles. “We’ve built the platform. We’ve demonstrated the tools,” says Mehling. “Now the sky’s the limit.”

In a study published in Physical Review X Quantum, a team led by JILA and NIST Fellow and �鶹ӰԺ physics professor Jun Ye has demonstrated—for the first time—narrow-line laser cooling of a molecule. By utilizing a previously unaddressed transition in the diatomic molecule yttrium monoxide (YO), the researchers have developed a new approach to manipulate internal states and molecular motion with unprecedented precision.

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JILA Collaboration Makes Cavity Quantum Electrodynamics into a Team Sport

Steven Burrows — Thu, 27 Nov 2025 19:01:01 +0000

JILA Collaboration Makes Cavity Quantum Electrodynamics into a Team Sport Steven Burrows Thu, 11/27/2025 - 12:01

Bailey Bedford / Freelance Science Communicator

Researchers used laser light to trigger a rapid sequence where atoms absorb and emit photons, shifting between energy states. Each emitted photon, now a different color, bounces through the cavity and drives the next atom’s transition, enabling a rare three-body interaction. Image Credit: Steven Burrows / JILA

Reality is the result of countless interactions. Everything in daily life, from a grain of dust floating in the air to a neuron firing in a brain, is the result of myriads of atoms and other quantum particles interacting.

Often, we get by with ignoring interactions and seeing just the big picture result. However, physicists learn a lot by digging down to the foundation and studying how the interactions between particles play out. In the past, researchers have mostly simplified things by focusing on interactions between two objects at a time—two-body interactions. However, reality isn’t always so simple. Sometimes three or more particles interact in fundamentally different ways than groups of interacting pairs would.

For the past several years, an experimental research group led by JILA Fellow James Thompson and a theoretical research group led by JILA Fellow Ana Maria Rey have been working together to study quantum interactions using cavity quantum electrodynamics (cavity QED)—the science of how light contained in reflective cavities interacts with quantum particles, like individual atoms. Recently, they tackled many-body interactions with a new experiment, described in an article published in the journal Science. In the experiment, they successfully created interactions that require the participation of either three or four atoms to achieve the observed results.

“Nature’s forces act between pairs, but when many particles come together, new interactions can emerge,” says Rey, who is also a National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Fellow and a �鶹ӰԺ Physics professor. “Controlling these multi-body interactions opens the door to faster, richer and more powerful quantum matter.”

The new experiment took their research from looking at situations where all interactions are essentially the result of atoms playing two-player sports to a more complex world where atoms participate in team sports. Instead of two tennis players hitting a ball back and forth, the experiment introduces a baseball team where the ball gets thrown between several players. The change expands their ability to form quantum connections between the players.

“This is a whole new path to generate quantumy-stuff called entanglement that will improve quantum sensors for navigation, atomic clocks and maybe even detect exotic things like dark matter or gravitational waves,” says Thompson, who is also a NIST physicist and �鶹ӰԺ Physics professor.

The experiment used rubidium atoms as the players, and their games—interactions—were carried out by tossing around light. The researchers used cavities as the playing field and supplied around a thousand atoms to form small teams. The researchers controlled the colors of light they sent into the cavity and how different colors of light behaved in the cavity, which helped them set the rules of the game.

The researchers focused on the quantum states of the atoms defined by the movement of the atoms through the chamber. Thanks to conservation laws, the atoms couldn’t just change their speeds and run around the experiment in any random way; to change states, they needed to receive or release exactly the right amount of energy and momentum. The researchers set up the experiment so the only way the atoms could change states was by catching or releasing photons—individual particles of light that carry specific amounts of energy and momentum.

Since the atoms were in a frictionless vacuum, they didn’t stay in place like a pitcher on the mound when they caught or threw a photon. Instead, it was like the atoms were a baseball team forced to play on ice or were astronauts playing the game of catch while floating in the middle of a spacewalk: Every catch and throw gave them a shove.

The quantum nature of the atoms meant they were only stable in certain specific states, and each atom could only catch a photon if there was an appropriate state for it to move into afterward. This allowed the researchers to carefully design interactions by choosing what colors of light were in the cavity.

They focused on moving atoms between two stable states, and they made sure the cavity didn’t contain light that could simply knock an atom between the states with a single caught photon (the resulting interactions would be boring). Instead, they created a playing field where atoms had to coordinate a specific play—string of interactions—to move between stable states. They ensured that each game started and ended with photons whose energy differed by exactly enough to move three atoms between states.

To start the play, the researchers flooded the cavity with light that could push the atoms to an energetic state that they couldn’t stay in for long. Each time an atom caught a photon, it immediately threw out a photon to return to a lower energy state. Sometimes it threw out a photon just like the one it caught and returned to its original state. Other times, it instead tossed out a weaker photon and kept a little bit of its new energy and momentum. The only allowed option was keeping exactly enough to settle into the second stable state.

This released photon was a new color and was free to bounce around the cavity and quickly be caught by another atom. Similar to the first step, catching the light temporarily shoved the second atom to an unstable state before it, in turn, tossed off another photon. Again, the second atom sometimes kept enough energy and momentum to join the first atom in the new state. The process continued with a third atom joining the first two by catching the new photon and throwing out another weakened photon.

To ensure the chain of events, the researchers set up their cavity to encourage the presence of the initial light and the final photons released in this game of catch while being inhospitable to other undesired colors of light. The dynamics of the light in the cavity and the rubidium atoms’ available quantum states meant the whole play had to happen quickly or not at all.

“We build very strict rules in our system that all three processes have to happen at the same time in order for momentum and energy to be conserved,” says Chengyi Luo, the co-lead author of the paper.

The researchers confirmed the atoms moved between states following the prescribed three-body interactions, and they went a step further. They illustrated the adaptability of the approach by increasing the amount of energy and momentum available to fuel four-body interactions, adding another player to each game of catch. Their observations showed the atoms teaming up into a smoothly running machine and moving in groups of four to the new state.

These demonstrations are just the first steps in exploring many-body interactions with this approach.

“There are a lot of things people need to figure out about how we're going to explore these multibody interactions to make them useful,” Rey, says. “We just saw them, but there are a lot of new behaviors and capabilities to be explored. For example, we think they can be used to emulate exotic superconductors where four electrons team up instead of two electrons like in normal superconductor, producing a new kind of supercurrent that may contribute to high temperature superconductors.”

In the future, experiments should be able to use different quantum states, induce interactions between even larger numbers of particles and make the interactions do practical work. The ability to involve more particles in each interaction provides a new set of tools for researchers. As the technique is explored and refined, it has potential applications in a variety of areas including quantum simulation, quantum computing and quantum sensing.

“I think it's interesting that there's this new way to change the quality of the communication that can happen between all these atoms,” Thompson says. “You really fundamentally change what that communication looks like. It's just an open physics question, like, ‘Well, how good can it be?’ and going further ‘Can we build new quantum states to simulate and explore the universe around us?’”

For the past several years, an experimental research group led by JILA Fellow James Thompson and a theoretical research group led by JILA Fellow Ana Maria Rey have been working together to study quantum interactions using cavity quantum electrodynamics (cavity QED)—the science of how light contained in reflective cavities interacts with quantum particles, like individual atoms. Recently, they tackled many-body interactions with a new experiment, described in an article published in the journal Science. In the experiment, they successfully created interactions that require the participation of either three or four atoms to achieve the observed results.

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Resonant Frequencies: Playing the Edge of Light with a 3-micron Baton

Steven Burrows — Mon, 03 Nov 2025 18:28:05 +0000

Resonant Frequencies: Playing the Edge of Light with a 3-micron Baton Steven Burrows Mon, 11/03/2025 - 11:28

Kenna Hughes-Castleberry / JILA Science Communicator

An ultrastable, scalable and repeatable method for generating soft X-ray beams using a custom-built 3-micron ultrafast laser that is focused into an anti-resonant hollow-core fiber. Image credit: Steven Burrows / JILA

Producing coherent (or laser like) soft X-ray beams in a lab-scale setup represents a many decades-long challenge. Scientists in physics, chemistry, and materials science can use soft X-ray light to study the nanoscale properties of materials and biological systems, to capture behaviors that cannot be seen using visible or even ultraviolet light. But here’s the catch: soft X-rays are notoriously hard to make. To get them, most researchers must travel to large, government-funded synchrotrons—billion-dollar machines, that have limited access and stability. These trips are often rushed, competitive, and only available a few times a year.

Now, a team led by JILA Fellows and CU �鶹ӰԺ professors Margaret Murnane and Henry Kapteyn has made a significant advance to make soft X-rays more accessible: with their research group, they have developed an ultrastable, scalable and repeatable method for generating soft X-ray beams using a custom-built 3-micron ultrafast laser that is focused into an anti-resonant hollow-core fiber. This breakthrough, detailed in a paper recently published in APL Photonics, builds on well over a decade of laser development. It presents a technological and experimental advance in high-harmonic generation (HHG), the nonlinear optical process by which high-frequency light is created from lower-frequency driving lasers. The team’s past breakthroughs had shown that the key to generating bright coherent soft X-ray beams was to use mid-infrared (2 – 4 µm) driving lasers focused into a waveguide filled with high-pressure gas. However, no good robust drive lasers existed. In this new breakthrough, the team made giant leaps in transitioning the technique from a heroic optics experiment towards a reliable, applications-oriented light source.

“We wanted to make a coherent X-ray source that doesn’t require a team of optics experts to babysit—something that could find applications in labs across various scientific disciplines and industries,” says JILA research associate Drew Morrill, one of the lead scientists on the project and the paper’s co-first author.
Drew and the team have made a huge step forward by creating bright, ultrastable, coherent soft X-ray beams. In the future, they can enable higher-resolution microscopes that can work in a stroboscopic mode—for example, by capturing nanoscale processes in nanoelectronic, quantum, energy and biological systems, making it possible to understand and optimize them.

A Decade in the Making

Developing JILA’s compact soft X-ray source took over ten years of effort—refining a homebuilt 3-micron wavelength ultrafast laser system when no commercial options existed. From the beginning, the goal was ambitious: to build a mid-infrared laser that was not only powerful and ultrafast but stable enough to operate for entire days without interruption.

To reach that level of performance, the team had to learn how to build fiber lasers from the ground up. That meant mastering delicate tasks like fiber splicing, amplifier construction, and dispersion balancing—adapting technologies initially designed for telecommunications into a new realm of nonlinear fiber optic to seed high power lasers.

One key laser advance came during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic when the team collaborated with CU �鶹ӰԺ Engineering and Physics Professor Scott Diddams. “Scott’s group gave us a roadmap—parts lists, layout guidance, and design principles,” says JILA research scientist Michaël Hemmer, one of the paper’s lead authors. “Then we built it ourselves. The pulses provided by this front-end are outstandingly stable and really the cornerstone of the laser system. These pulses are then amplified using a home-built ytterbium-doped crystal amplifier, providing the high energy needed for HHG while maintaining a clean, controlled beam.”

“The cryogenic ytterbium amplifier is also a second key building block of the system, but it can only run reliably because the front-end is exceptionally reliable; otherwise, it would destroy itself all the time,” notes Hemmer.

Another key contributor was European physicist Dr. Gunnar Arisholm, who shared advanced simulation code that helped the team model complex optical interactions in nonlinear crystals.

“It saved us months of trial and error,” says Hemmer. “He helped train Drew to use the code, which was instrumental in getting the final version running.”

And finally, the key advance was to use optimized waveguides for efficiently converting the laser light into coherent soft X-ray beams.

The line of the first three OPA's that amplify the 3-micron beam. The green light is the parasitic second harmonic light of the 1-micron pump, and the red light is the sum frequency of the 1-micron pump and the 1.5-micron signal. Credit: Gabriella “Gabi” Seifert / JILA

Building and Testing a New Instrument

After designing and re-designing the laser system featuring a fiber-laser-seeded optical parametric chirped-pulse amplifier (OPCPA), the team was finally able to deliver 3 µm wavelength laser pulses with exceptional power and stability. To upconvert this laser light into soft X-rays, the laser pulses are guided through an engineered anti-resonant hollow-core fiber (ARHCF) filled with high-pressure noble gas. Working as a “conductor” for the light, the fiber acts as a waveguide and a container for the interaction medium, allowing the laser and the emitted soft X-rays to travel in phase and interfere constructively over large lengths—opening the door to a new regime of compact, high-brightness sources.

“The laser light travels through the fiber, ionizes the gas, and emits harmonics—overtones of light—far above the frequency of the original beam,” explains JILA graduate student and co-first author Will Hettel.

This process, known as high-harmonic generation (HHG), converts mid-infrared laser pulses into coherent soft X-ray light—similar to how plucking a violin string produces overtones from a single note.

To support this process, the team, with the help of JILA instrument maker and co-author James Uhrich, engineered a precision target system with a modular design: a chassis that allows rapid reconfiguration for different gases and geometries, streamlining the experimental workflow.

“We designed a setup where we can swap out fiber cartridges with micron-level precision,” says Hettel. “It stays aligned even under 10 atmospheres of pressure.”

In terms of output, the system generates soft X-ray photons at energies exceeding 280 eV, reaching the carbon K-edge—a crucial spectral region for biological and materials science applications.

From their design, the researchers found that the setup can run at kilohertz-level repetition rates with continuous, stable beam output for several hours or longer with minimal fluctuation. The system is also rather robust, showing no signs of optical damage even after months of operation. This level of durability is essential for research workflows that demand high uptime and minimal maintenance.

“This isn’t a one-off result,” said Hemmer. “We can run it for days. The beam doesn’t drift. The power doesn’t degrade. That makes it incredibly useful for real experiments.”

Simulating a Symphony

While the laser system was being constructed, another crucial component of the project unfolded in parallel: advanced simulations. To better understand and optimize the HHG process, JILA graduate student Ben Shearer helped develop a fast and flexible numerical model.

“Simulations like this normally take days or weeks to run,” Shearer explains. “We created a version that runs in hours or even minutes—without sacrificing too much of the physics.”

His code, based on a parameterized version of the strong-field approximation, allowed the team to virtually test a wide range of laser pulse durations, energies, and gas conditions before trying them in the lab.

“Ben’s work gave us a cheat sheet,” notes Hemmer. “We could avoid dead ends and prioritize ideas that had a real shot at working.”

These simulations also laid the groundwork for future upgrades, such as transitioning from argon to helium to achieve even higher photon energies.

“If you want to go to the absolute highest energy of high harmonic generation, you need to ionize helium,” says JILA graduate student Gabriella “Gabi” Seifert. “We're getting there; it’s just taking it one step at a time.”

Helium’s higher ionization potential allows stronger driving fields without over-ionizing the medium—a key requirement for pushing HHG to higher energy regimes.

A view of the argon gas cell that the laser is beamed through to produce HHG, showing the fifth harmonic (yellow) and seventh harmonic (blue). Credit: Drew Morrill and Grzegorz Golba / JILA

A World of Possibilities

By building a stable, coherent soft X-ray source that fits on a lab bench, the team has opened the door for broader scientific access to a tool that once required massive infrastructure with limited access.

“We’re really just scratching the surface of what this source can enable,” says Morrill. “With this kind of stability and control, we can start to ask questions that were previously only addressable at synchrotron or free-electron laser facilities, and even go beyond what was possible before.”

Potential applications include high-resolution soft X-ray microscopy of carbon-rich biological material—opening up the possibility of live cell imaging without the need to add light-emitting fluorescent molecules or without the need to freeze the sample.

“This spectral regime is well suited for high-resolution biological imaging,” says JILA graduate student Clay Klein
Other uses lie in probing advanced magnetic materials, such as those explored for ultra-low-energy computing or data storage technologies based on electron spin.

“There’s a long history of new light sources unlocking unexpected science,” said Morrill. “We’re excited to see where this one leads.”

This research was published in APL Photonics.

A team led by JILA Fellows and CU �鶹ӰԺ professors Margaret Murnane and Henry Kapteyn has made a significant advance to make soft X-rays more accessible: with their research group, they have developed an ultrastable, scalable and repeatable method for generating soft X-ray beams using a custom-built 3-micron ultrafast laser that is focused into an anti-resonant hollow-core fiber.

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